Contents

�����x ����|����������iv
Abbreviations xv
Acknowledgements xvi
Series Editors’note xviii
1��Learning Oriented Assessment: An overview 1
1.1��The organisation of this volume 7
1.2��What is learning? 8
1.3��What is language learning? 9
1.4��What is to be learned? 10
1.5��The roles of assessment in learning 11
1.6��Aligning large-scale and classroom assessment 14
1.7��In summary 15
2��The roots of Learning Oriented Assessment 17
2.1��Cambridge English and Learning Oriented Assessment 18
2.2��Origins and emphases of learning-oriented approaches 18
2.3��Defining learning-oriented assessment: Process, policy or
principles? 27
2.4��Specific learning-oriented methods 32
3��What is learning? 35
3.1��Constructivism 35
3.2��An appropriate model of cognition and learning 37
3.3��Task-based interaction 39
3.4��Roles of teachers and learners 47
3.5��In summary 54
4��What is language learning? 56
4.1��Languages as a special case 56
4.2��The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages 57
4.3��Natural language acquisition 59
4.4��Second Language Acquisition research 60
4.5��In summary 66
5��What is to be learned? 67
5.1��The desired outcomes of learning 67
5.2��The nature of language proficiency: Construct definition 71
5.3��The content of learning: Curricular objectives 75
5.4��In summary 76
6��The role of large-scale assessment in learning 78
6.1��Proficiency testing: The importance of criterion reference 79
6.2��Scale construction 80
6.3��Item Response Theory 82
6.4��Item banking 83
6.5��Performance assessment 85
6.6��Validity and reliability of large-scale assessment 86
6.7��Large-scale assessment: Evidence of and for learning 90
6.8��In summary 91
7��Learning-oriented assessment in the classroom 93
7.1 The nature of classroom learning-oriented assessment 93
7.2 Domain-specific and generalisable learning skills 95
7.3 Learning-centred and content-centred act