Contents Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Linguistics 1
1.1.1 Definition of linguistics 1
1.1.2 Linguistics versus traditional grammar 2
1.1.3 Use of studying linguistics 3
1.1.4 Scope of linguistics 4
1.2 Language 8
1.2.1 Definition of language 8
1.2.2 Origin of language 9
1.2.3 Design features of language 10
1.2.4 Functions of language 13
1.3 Some Major Concepts in Linguistics 15
1.3.1 Descriptive and prescriptive grammars 15
1.3.2 Synchronic and diachronic linguistics 15
1.3.3 Langue and parole 16
1.3.4 Competence and performance 16
1.3.5 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations 17
1.3.6 Functionalism and formalism 18
Exercises and Discussion Questions 18
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 19
Supplementary Readings 20 Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language 25
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Phonetics 25
2.2.1 Articulators and their functions 26
2.2.2 Voiced and voiceless sounds 29
2.2.3 Nasal and oral sounds 30
2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds 31
2.2.4.1 English consonants 32
2.2.4.2 English vowels 34
2.2.5 Variations of sounds 35
2.2.5.1 Liaison 35
2.2.5.2 Elision and assimilation 35
2.3 Phonology 36
2.3.1 Phonemes: the phonological units of language 37
2.3.2 Minimal pairs and sets 38
2.3.3 Free variation 39
2.3.4 Distinctive features 39
2.3.5 Syllables and consonant clusters 40
2.3.6 Suprasemental features 43
2.3.6.1 Stress 43
2.3.6.2 Intonation 44
Exercises and Discussion Questions 45
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 46
Supplementary Readings 47 Chapter 3 Morphology 52
3.1 Introduction 52
3.2 Morphemes 52
3.2.1 Free morphemes 53
3.2.2 Bound morphemes 53
3.3 Morphs and Allomorphs 56
3.4 Types of Word Formation 57
3.4.1 Compounding 57
3.4.2 Derivation 58
3.4.3 Other ways of word formation 60
3.4.3.1 Conversion 60
3.4.3.2 Backformation 60
3.4.3.3 Clipping 61
3.4.3.4 Blending 61
3.4.3.5 Acronym 61
3.4.3.6 Initialism 62
Exercises and Discussion Questions 63
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 65
Supplementary Readings 65 Chapter 4 Syntax 70
4.1 Introduction 70
4.2 Word classes 71
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 73
4.4 The Descriptive Approach 74
4.4.1 Structural analysis 74
4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 75
4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 77
4.6 Transformational Grammar 83
4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar 87
Exercises and Discussion Questions 95
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 96
Supplementary Readings 97 Chapter 5 Semantics 103
5.1 Definition of Semantics 103
5.2 Approaches to Meaning 104
5.2.1 Meaning as naming 105
5.2.2 Meaning as concept 106
5.2.3 Meaning as behavior 107
5.2.4 Meaning as context 107
5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions 109
5.3 Word Meaning 110
5.3.1 Sense and reference 110
5.3.2 Seven types of meaning 111
5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning 111
5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning 112
5.3.2.3 Social meaning 113
5.3.2.4 Affective meaning 114
5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning 115
5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning 115
5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning 116
5.3.3 Semantic fields 117
5.3.4 Componential analysis 118
5.3.5 Semantic relationships between words 120
5.3.5.1 Homonymy 121
5.3.5.2 Polysemy 121
5.3.5.3 Homophony 122
5.3.5.4 Synonymy 122
5.3.5.5 Antonymy 123
5.3.5.6 Hyponymy 124
5.3.5.7 Meronymy 125
5.4 Sentence Meaning 126
5.4.1 Sentence and proposition 126
5.4.2 Semantic roles 127
5.4.3 Semantic relationships between sentences 131
5.4.3.1 Entailment 131
5.4.3.2 Presupposition 131
5.4.3.3 Synonymy 132
5.4.3.4 Inconsistency 132
5.4.3.5 Implicature 132
Exercises and Discussion Questions 133
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 135
Supplementary Readings 136 Chapter 6 Pragmatics 141
6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 Micropragmatics 143
6.2.1 Reference 143
6.2.2 Deixis 144
6.2.3 Anaphora 145
6.2.4 Presupposition 146
6.3 Macropragmatics 147
6.3.1 Speech act theory 148
6.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts 148
6.3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary acts 150
6.3.1.3 Indirect speech acts 151
6.3.2 The Cooperative Principle 153
6.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims 153
6.3.2.2 Conversational implicatures 154
6.3.3 The Politeness Principle 157
Exercises and Discussion Questions 161
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 162
Supplementary Readings 163 Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis 167
7.1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis 167
7.2 Information Structure 169
7.2.1 Given and new information 169
7.2.2 Topic and comment 170
7.2.3 Contrast 172
7.3 Cohesion and Coherence 173
7.3.1 Cohesion 175
7.3.1.1 Reference 175
7.3.1.2 Substitution 176
7.3.1.3 Ellipsis 176
7.3.1.4 Conjunction 177
7.3.1.5 Lexical cohesion 177
7.3.2 Coherence 178
7.4 Discourse Markers 180
7.5 Conversational Analysis 182
7.5.1 Adjacency pairs 183
7.5.2 Preference structure 184
7.5.3 Presequences 186
7.6 Critical Discourse Analysis 187
Exercises and Discussion Questions 189
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 190
Supplementary Readings 190 Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 196
8.1 Introduction 196
8.2 Language Varieties 197
8.2.1 Standard language 197
8.2.2 Dialects 198
8.2.3 Registers 200
8.2.4 Pidgins and creoles 202
8.2.5 Language planning 203
8.3 Choosing a Code 204
8.3.1 Diglossia 204
8.3.2 Bilingualism and multilingualism 205
8.3.3 Code-switching 206
8.4 Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms 207
8.5 Language and Gender 210
Exercises and Discussion Questions 212
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 213
Supplementary Readings 214 Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 220
9.1 Introduction 220
9.2 Language Acquisition 221
9.3 Language Production 223
9.3.1 Conceptualization 224
9.3.2 Formulation 224
9.3.3 Articulation 226
9.3.4 Self-regulation 226
9.4 Language Comprehension 227
9.4.1 Sound comprehension 228
9.4.2 Word comprehension 228
9.4.3 Sentence comprehension 230
9.4.4 Text comprehension 231
9.5 Language and Thought 232
9.5.1 Language determines thought 233
9.5.2 Thought determines language 235
Exercises and Discussion Questions 237
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 238
Supplementary Readings 239 Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics 243
10.1 Introduction 243
10.2 Categorization and Categories 244
10.2.1 The classical theory 244
10.2.2 Prototype theory 246
10.2.3 Levels of categorization 248
10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy 249
10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor 249
10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy 250
10.4 Iconicity 254
10.4.1 Iconicity of order 254
10.4.2 Iconicity of distance 255
10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity 256
10.5 Grammaticalization 257
Exercises and Discussion Questions 259
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 260
Supplementary Readings 261 Chapter 11 Language Acquisition 267
11.1 First Language Acquisition 267
11.1.1 The behaviorist approach 268
11.1.2 The innateness approach 269
11.1.3 Stages of acquiring the first language 270
11.2 Second Language Acquisition 273
11.2.1 Contrastive analysis 274
11.2.2 Error analysis 274
11.2.3 Interlanguage 276
11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition 277
11.3.1 Language aptitude 277
11.3.2 Cognitive style: field dependence and field
independence 278
11.3.3 Personality traits 280
11.3.4 Learning strategies 281
11.4 Instruction and L2 Acquisition 284
11.4.1 Form-focused instruction 284
11.4.2 Learner-instruction matching 285
11.4.3 Strategy training 286
Exercises and Discussion Questions 287
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 288
Supplementary Readings 289 Chapter 12 Applied Linguistics 296
12.1 Introduction 296
12.2 Language Teaching 297
12.2.1 The grammar-translation method 298
12.2.2 The direct method 299
12.2.3 The audiolingual method 300
12.2.4 Situational language teaching 302
12.2.5 Functional language teaching 303
12.2.6 Communicative language teaching 305
12.2.7 Other approaches 308
12.3 Testing 308
12.3.1 The main types of language tests 308
12.3.2 Principles of language testing 313
12.4 Summary 318
Exercises and Discussion Questions 319
Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading 319
Supplementary Readings 321 Glossary 326
Index 341